Concept Learning

1ST TOPIC  : CONCEPT OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Readings : Aedneters - opinions on education and training.

Summaries :

Training humans is teaching them how to perform specific tasks involves about 60/40 physical/mental skills.  Training is focused, directed towards specific objectives and takes place within a very limited time frame.  It does not concern with a history, rationale, philosophy, significant amount of supportive literature and significant independent research.  Training programs include education and vice versa.  Successful human training programs must be designed to be flexible, respectful of individual differences and responsive to the needs, requirements and capabilities of the people participating. It is inhuman to give training to human with toucher, pain, stress and deprivation.

Training involved having participant focus on a specific skill that they need to be able to apply immediately on the job.  In business community training seemed cost effective and efficient than education which perceived as broader, time consuming and expensive.  Meaning from dictionary, education is derived from word educe or draw out whereas training is pulling along or dragging behind. We have potential to achieve by educe ourselves, whereas trains seems to imply that superior and labour (a drag) to bring learners to proficiency.

Training refers to specific skills or knowledge.  It is essential to perform a specific job or task while education is viewed as a broader concept and need specific skills or knowledge that improves one’s ability to perform a job or task to enhance the individual’s ability rather than being essential to the performance of the specific job or task.

Training includes skills knowledge and attitude in a variety of settings that help the individual develop the ability to think critically and apply the skill in new and changing circumstances.  These called training, education and learning.  The students to continue with their education and interested to getting jobs with higher goals and dreams and get certificate from the entire training programs to use to get job and achieve the dreams and goals.

Training is for conditioning period whereas education to make person to be lifelong learners.

In educating professionals it is clearly that training and education are needed and have a synergistic relationship.  In life we need both, training and education.  Educating people is about moulding minds and values into shapes acceptable to the educator.  It is role of the facilitator in setting, to infuse this collaborative learning with the skills and information that she/he is charged to convey.

As facilitator has to facilitate of learning, getting the learner to use their own knowledge as per folks saying, give a him a fish, he eats for a day but teach him how to fish, he eats for a lifetime.  A person can be trained on a machine how to use  e.g computer in a rather brief period of time.  Education refers to something that takes a long time to understand e.g teaches someone to speak other language.  Education involves higher level learning.

The term training is often used in a more time-delimited business context, whereas the term education is often used in the context of more formalized instruction over a longer time period, at a standard educational institution.  Training and education are semantic both are important.  Training and education have much in common.  Often good training may well be good education and they have some objectives.  Indeed there is a connection between training and education and the search for difference need to give way to learning and how the individual applies their learning.  People will be curious and think of connections with or without formal training/education. 

This is human nature and the cutting edge of learning for the individual.  Over the course of lives, it has potential to become a tapestry of great richness and depth.  The trainer or Instructor responsibility for the outcomes of the training.  The intent of the program and the responsibility of the faculty is to bring each student to a predetermined, and measurable, level of performance, at minimum.  The faculties have difficulty grasping the responsibilities of including properly planned and executed training programs in support of their educational endeavours because of that they are being criticized, their enrolment is dropping, and economic support from their constituencies/electorate is flagging.

Conclusion:

This topic discussed how central learning in education and training were become to organizational survival and success.  It is to help change attitudes to learning and to encourage people to learn.  This also implies opening minds of employees to how and where they learn and the need to take learning out of the classroom.  It is to promote learning within organizations the most important step to take is to recognize that learning needs to happen, continuously, at every level of the organization.  Creating and sustaining a learning culture has become a high priority for organizations.

Education is associated with schooling.  According to Adler (1982), the traditional view of education when think of education, it is tending to think of development of children, and not of development, of learning in school and not outside the school.  Darkenwald & Merriam (1982) has broader view that education is observed that the family, the church, the work place, the mass media, the library, and many other institutions also play important roles in the education of people, both young and old.  Education has new concept that everywhere, every time and anywhere.

Peterson (1979) refers as formal is institution-based, structured learning relying on teacher’s instruction; informal refers to non-school-based, less structured learning not pursued for credit, including what we called unintentional learning.  Non-formal refers to organized educational activities offered by non-school organizations; this concept has evolved chiefly among adult education leaders in developing nations.  Non-education is characterized by flexibility, relevance to contemporary problems, and voluntary participation.

Training and education are defined as the systematic acquisition of skills, rules, concepts, or attitudes that results in improved performance in another environment.  Education and training can make a change in cognitive -   mind, affective - emotion- value/attitude and psychomotor-skill ability.  Semantic or not, training is part of education.  It is changing people with educative and trained. 

2ND TOPIC : TRAINING AND RELATED CONCEPTS

Issues and challenges in training and development

Readings : i. Mitchell - Issues in training

Summaries :

The changing nature of the work force, with fewer competent entry-level workers at a time when jobs require more skills, the growth and proper role of technology in training and the soft management training versus hard-core skills training.

The Changing Work Force

It is the depth of change in the work force, technologies, and marketplace.  Summary of Workforce 2000 that will impact on training by Hudson (1987) tells us that in 1990s, 27% of new jobs demand only minimal, low entry-level skills.  40% in mid 1980s.  The 50% will demand post of secondary education.  The 10% of the work force by younger workers will decline more than 50% to around 40%.  The average age of the work force will increase from 36 to 39 years.  An older work force, coupled with a demand for newer skills (re-training).  Many workers need to change jobs 5 - 6 times in a career.  80% of new workers will be women, minorities, and immigrants.  In 1999, 10% of the entering work force will be able to solve in a simple algebraic equation.

In 1989 the American Management Association (AMA) conducted survey and findings that 15% (27 million people) of the adult population in the US are functionally illiterate, millions qualify as literate but still unable to learn job skills from instructional materials.  The Educational Testing Service reported that fewer than half of the nation’s 17 year old high school students could figure the area of a rectangle, or knew that 87% of 10 was less than 10.  8 out of 10 firms surveyed that test job applicants in basic skills simply refuse to hire candidates who cannot pass those tests.

Respond to survey and findings as:

The workforce 2000 study indicates the number of applicants who can pass the skills tests will decrease, requiring companies to conduct longer, more costly searches for fewer new hires.  The skills requirements will be increasing. Hiring only those who can pass standardized basic skills tests. 

They can increase salary levels at the lower echelons to attract more-qualified applicants.  Only few companies have increasing salary levels for lower-rank employees who have long service.  When qualified candidates become rarer, competition for new hires will become an inflated jungle of cut throat recruiting practices. 

Lower the standards and accept more entry-level workers with less ability.  The effect of lowering the standards to keep up the numbers will be a considerable decline in workers efficiency as new hires take longer to get up to speed on the job.  Decline in efficiency as current workers are distracted for longer periods of time to train new hires and decline in job performance standards as the quality of service sinks to the level of ability of the new unskilled work force.  These cannot help a company stay competitive.

Send work abroad via satellite to countries where entry-level standards are much higher. It is attractive at first but long run weakens the U.S. economy. It increasingly competitive global marketplace such a policy is also self-defeating.  If destroy the infrastructure at home, we lessen the quality of life too.  Sending economy abroad is no way to build it at home.

Form partnerships with schools in order to improve the calibre and direction of the education their entry-level labour pool receives. They were not finding them among the high school graduates who were applying for work as tellers, clerks, and data-entry operators.  A number of banks, spearheaded by American Express Bank, set up the Academy as a partnership with the New York City public schools.

Conclusion

This topic about current issues in training.  We can see the changing nature of the work force, the incredible growth of technology in training, and its proper role, the dichotomy of soft versus skills areas of training, the final decade of the century and the impact on training of the entry of Euro 92 and Eastern Europe into the trading arena.

People learnt best when they can interact with each other.  In the U.S., Japan & Germany highly technologized cultures, training is still done live.  Learning is a humanizing activity, therefore can only be supplemented by technology, not replaced by it.  They wanted to learn hard-core, no-nonsense, hands-on, job-related skills.  Keep affective objectives to a minimum and concentrate on the skills-oriented ones.

We conclude that the next decade holds nothing but promise for the growth of training as an aspect of the business world.

ii.      Fitzgerald - Training versus Development

Training defined as the acquisition of knowledge and skill for present tasks, a tool to help individuals contribute to the organization and be successful in their current positions.  Two key points are training and develop skills.  People need some level of training if they are to meet expectations, contribute to their organizations, and experience a high degree of success.  Those elements lead to job satisfaction.

Development defined as the acquisition of knowledge and skill that may be used in the present or future, the preparation of individual to enrich the organization in the future, the act of being involved in many different types of training activities and classes.

 iii.    Saiyaddin - Perceptions of Sponsoring Managers, Training Organizations, and Top

         Management Attitude Towards Training.

Malaysia performances in the manufacturing, construction and service sectors boosted the gross domestic product (GDP) to 9.9% for the first quarter of 1995.  Unemployment is virtually nonexistent (3%) and inflation is under control with a slight increase in consumer price index. It has been identified as one of the top 20 exporting nations in the world. To maintain this economic scenario, it needs a large and professionally trained workforce. 

Two schemes have been initiated:

The first is the Human Resources Development Fund (HRDF). It is aimed at enabling the private sector to play an important role in identifying necessary skills, determining training needs and undertaking accelerated systematic training programmes to prepare the workforce. The second major focus on providing higher education to those not qualified to get it through the traditional route.  These attempts are further complemented by the efforts of about 200 management consulting/training organizations operating in Malaysia (Arthur Anderson & Co., 1991), professional associations and schools of management. Practically all of them organize in-company training programmes or sponsor their employees to external programmes.

Most of the studies on training in Malaysia seem to focus on need identification and facilities for training (e.g. Quah Phaik Suan, 1973; Asma Abdullah, 1985; Hamid et. al., 1987). A more comprehensive and relatively recent study throws some interesting light on the training activities in Malaysia (Saiyadain and Juhary Ali, 1995). It found that as many as 82.6% of the organizations sponsored their managers for training, including foreign training, to 25 countries of the world.  On an average these organizations spent 4.65% of the managerial payroll on the training of managers, but few bothered to ascertain post training effectiveness.

The main reason may seem to lie in their inability to see the tangible benefits of training given that the average cost of training is 4.65% of managerial payroll (Saiyadain and Juhary Ali, 1995). Wagel (1977) found that 75% of the firms have no formal method of evaluating training effectiveness.  According to Easterby-Smith (1985) found that only one firm conducted some form of evaluation on a regular basis.

His result showed that the organizations were dissatisfied with the present situation and often offered apologetic explanations about plans being a foot to change things in future.

Saiyadain and Juhary Ali (1995) found that some managers sponsored their subordinates to training programmes to reward them for good work (paid holiday) or pass problem managers to trainers for the duration of training. Many times, managers do not "release" employees for training despite advance knowledge of dates and durations. Some send any person to make up the quota. Training becomes statistics and reinforces the impression that it does not have much value added.

In a sarcastic article, Meals (1986) identifies five activities that lead to basic training waste (a

compelling desire to waste money on training vestigial idealism). These are, (1) using training to reward outstanding performance, (2) never evaluate the results of training, (3) assign trainees "democratically" (randomly) to training programmes, (4) keeping detailed training cost secret, and (5) avoiding use of training-produced capabilities.

The results of this study indicate a general negative perception of the efforts of training organizations. The training organizations have been perceived to offer training programmes not very relevant to the needs of organizations, too theoretical, one-shot with no follow-up and not very interactive. Most training organizations in Malaysia are not exclusive training organizations. Training is one of the several activities they perform. They have neither the professional competence nor the resources to identify training needs and mount relevant training programmes. Training is a business. They depend on outsiders who have the "pulling capacity" to attract large audiences for a heavy price.

Conclusion :

A useful approach for understanding the training process is to consider it as a system whose boundaries interact with the rest of the business.   A company that has already gone to this amount of trouble is very likely to be committed to raining, but it would be a mistake to take this commitment for granted.  If it is taken for granted, it often turns to apathy or resistance.

 It is also not worth going nay further without obtaining a high level of commitment to training.  However, senior management commitment to training is not enough by itself.  The training department has to get its own house in order and the organization has to be aware of the importance that is attached to training.

It is very easy to say that effective training has to be aligned with a company’s business directions and values; that the training department has to provide courses which support the company’s goals; and that anyone who is involved in managing the training process ha to have a clear idea of where the business sis going.  All this assumes that those involved in running the business have a clear idea of where they are going.  Unfortunately,   this is not always the case.  And when the foundation is not firm the training process is unable to support the business.  This means that for effective training we have to start with business basics.

The process for getting the basics right for any department is the same as for the whole company.  This is no less true for the training function.   As previously stated, training has to be aligned with the business direction of the company.  If the company has got its basics sorted out, and communicated them effectively, the training function should be in no doubt as to which business directions and values should be supported.

3RD TOPIC : 30 THINGS WE KNOW FOR SURE ABOUT ADULT LEARNING
(RON ZEMKE & SUSAN ZEMKE

Adult Learning is all about motivation, designing curriculum for adults and working with adults in the classroom.  Adults motivated to learn and too cope with specific life-change events.  The more life-change events the more adults seek out learning opportunities.  The learning experiences are directly related to the life-change events.  The learning will take place during and after the events.  Learning is a means to an end, not an end in itself.  Adults do have ‘teachable moment’.

Curriculum designs are adults prefer single-concept, single-theory courses that focus on the application.  Adults need to integrate new ideas with what they already know in order to keep and use the new information.  New information that conflicts with old ones is integrated more slowly.  New information that has little connection with old ones is acquired slowly.  Fast-paced, complex or unusual learning tasks interfere with learning. 

Adults compensate slower psychomotor learning with more accurate and making fewer trial-and-error ventures.  Adults tend to take errors personally that affect self-esteem.  Curriculum must in concert with learner and organizational values.  Programs need to be designed to accept viewpoints from different stages of adult life.  A concept needs to be explained from more than one value set.  Adults prefer self-directed and self-designed learning projects.  Technology help adults plan self-directed learning projects.  Straightforward how-to is the preferred content orientation.  Self-directed projects does not mean isolation.

In the classroom the learning environment must be physically and psychologically comfortable.  Self-esteem and ego are on the line when asked to try new behaviour in front of class.  Adult life experiences are invaluable asset to be acknowledged, tapped and used.  Adults like open-ended questions to draw out their knowledge and experiences.  Adult learning requires active participation.  Timing is important in adult learning.  The instructor needs to protect minority opinion, keep disagreements civil and unheated.  New knowledge and skill requires focused effort.  Trainer need to take an eclectic rather than a single theory-based approach to developing strategies and procedures.

Conclusion :

Adults are changing and developing all the time.  Mature people that they have a framework of ideas and experience into which everything new must be fitted in order to make sense.  The framework has been formed through reflection on a variety of experiences. Mature people may find it easy to recognise challenges to their frameworks of thought, but hard to adapt those frameworks.  They lived through a number of years and a range of experiences, from many of which they have learnt.  Some of the experiences have been good and positive, others have been bad and negative.  Positive or negative, they are part of the baggage brought by adults to learning opportunities and colour the way in which people are able to respond to learning opportunities.

We expect adults to take responsibility for their actions, and adult learners to take responsibility for their own learning.  To encourage this to happen, adults need to become actively involved in the design of learning opportunities.  Adult learning emerges from our discussion as a complex process, affected by many factors and discussed in many ways from a variety of perspectives.  The provider of training and development for adults is faced with a bewildering array of elements to take into account in constructing learning opportunities. 

There are many different theories of adult learning, not all of which are totally compatible but the research work goes on and the discussions grow steadily.  No one theory covers everything.   We need to be aware of the different ideas, but we also need to recognize that these are ideas.  They are ways of helping us to draw in a systematic fashion on the experience of others.  They are not prescriptions. We need to recognize that we cannot do everything.  We can be aware of the different styles of learning and of the enormous differences between people on any given training programme or event.  But we cannot take account of everything.  It is therefore vital to consider what is appropriate and possible in any particular leaning situation.  Providers must not be worried by failure.  The perfect training event has never happened and probably never will, human beings what they are.  Those professionally involved in training and development can only do their best and learn from their experiences.

4TH TOPIC : DIMENSIONS OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

All learning experiences provided to employees to attain organizational objectives training and development also known as HRD. Activities include development programs, formal training programs, and informal in-house training programs.

The elements in T & D are challenges and issues, systems approach, assessing T & D needs, collecting and analyzing job data, constructing criterion measures, writing training objectives, choosing a delivery systems, selecting and sequencing content, selecting and using training strategies and media, selecting training instructors and trainees, producing training documents conducting training, evaluating training systems, following up graduates, calculating costs and benefits.

Collecting and analyzing job data in T&D must relates to job performance. Learning experiences must relate to job, duties, and tasks.  Job data must be collected and analyzed.  Constructing criterion measures are called job performance measures (JPMs). It is to determine whether trainees can perform the tasks. The measurements include competency, intelligence, aptitude, and personality measures.  Selecting & sequencing content are examine each performance objective to identify specific facts, concepts, principles, skills, and operations involved in each task, arrange the teaching points and learning activities in the best sequence for learning.

Selecting and using training strategies and media instructional strategy are combination of teaching methods and techniques. What methods, techniques and media to use in conducting training must be based on training objectives, course content, trainee population, instructional staff, space, facilities, equipment, instructional materials, time, and cost. Instructional method is basic approach to give teaching, lecture, demonstration, conference, performance, programmed instruction, study assignment, tutoring, team teaching, participative methods, or a combination. Instructional technique is a means of instruction that complements a method. E.g. Questioning, handling student responses, and using ava.

Selection of printed media or duplicated aids  such as books, pamphlets, handouts. Graphic aids such as pictures, whiteboards, charts, diagrams. Three-dimensional aids such as real objects, models, displays. Projected aids such as transparencies, film, video, LCD, computers and auditory aids  such as audio tape, disc.

Selecting instructors, trainees or instructors are very important.  They need to be trained.  It must be competence in subject-matter, andragogical knowledge and skills, communication skills, and personal traits and qualities.  Roles of instructor are planning a course, preparing learning materials, presenting instruction, guiding learning activities, evaluating learning,  and managing training.  When selecting trainees are must be carefully screened and selected for suitability. Information sources for selection such as nominations, application, tests,  self-reports, interviews.  Producing training documents are advantages of training documents includes long/short term planning plan, budget, programs of instruction (POI), lesson plans, and evaluation plan.

An evaluating training has summative and formative purposes.   It is to determine effectiveness, accountability, and existing of training department.  It has many models, gap in theory and practice. It must be practical based on evaluation objectives.  Components to be evaluated are trainees, instructors, course content, sequence and time allocations, instructional strategies, materials, equipment and facilities.  Perspectives required by trainee perspective, instructor perspective, evaluator perspective, training manager perspective and line supervisor perspective.  Caused of pitfalls in evaluation are poor planning, lack of objectivity, improper interpretation and inappropriate use of results.  Meaning of evaluation is observation, ratings, trainee surveys or interviews, group interviews, instructor surveys or interviews.  Direct costs includes administration and supervision, instruction, instructional materials, training equipment while indirect costs   includes services

Utilities and facilities such as trainee costs, instructor costs, instructional materials, equipment are cost per trainee, cost per hour, materials cost per trainee, equipment cost per trainee, Return on Investment (ROI) = net program saving or benefits program costs.

Conclusion :

The challenge for development professionals is to help change attitudes to learning and to encourage people to learn.  This also implies opening the minds of employees to how and where they learn and the learn to take learning out of the classroom. 

What I have to emphasize here is that for effective training to take place it must be wedded to the business.  Managers who are trying to implement training strategies need to understand what business objectives training is trying to support and then work out the best ways to deliver them.  The design of effective training can be a complex issue and needs to be approached with care.  However, provided those involved in the analysis and design elements have the appropriate skills and the time available, as systematic approach will result in effective training which will be of value both to the individuals concerned and the organization.  The strength of accelerated learning is not so much in its new techniques as in its systematic sturdiness.  The trainer can have confidence that it is founded on robust research, and that they already have all the resources necessary to begin accelerating their training process.  If the trainer is able to start with a `safe’ and sympathetic group, even the most unusual aspect, the review concert will prove to be easy to deliver.

The potential benefits of developing facilitation skills are many but the real magic of the approach is that it brings into the open opportunities for learning and development which can then be translated into performance improvements.  Whether working as a facilitator in one-to-one or in one - to - many situations by using this approach you are operating from a principle that believes in the potential of yourself and others.  A principle that sits squarely in line with the realities of business today.

Budgeting and financial control are essentially management activities.  Employee development practitioners need to `run a tight ship’ and to achieve this it is necessary to be close to the business planning process and the business managers.  The process requires a balanced integration of employee development skills, a business focus and an understanding of financial estimating and budgetary control.

5TH TOPIC : SUCCESSFUL PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES

The solid research base is lacking and hundreds of literature prescribe how to develop educational programs, useful for specific or for all professions.  Practitioners skeptical about the prescriptive frameworks.

Practice involves personality conflicts, political factors, and resources constraints.  The  limited research shows no continuing educators use textbook planning frameworks even for programs that are ‘successful’. It does not mean practitioners do not think in systematic ways.

Textbook planning frameworks do not adequately prescribe and describe those systematic processes. Practitioners have personal values, believes and institutional context that influence program development.  Central task for effective practice are make own framework explicit and analyze its assumptions and principles.

An Overview of Program Development Frameworks

Frameworks from Individual Professions

Sork (1983) found 22 literature on CPE program planning. Equal emphasis give to both the activity levels and organizational levels of programming. Most planning frameworks were designed for members of a single organization. The level of sophistication needed to use the frameworks is relatively low. Most publications emphasize the ‘how’ rather than the ‘why’. Planning steps similar with Tyler’s questions.  Highly prescriptive in nature little attention to context.  Difference emphasis given to the linkage between the educational program and the expected changes in professional practice; practice emphasis more than the framework

Cross-Professional Frameworks are Suggested by Pennington and Green (1976) from study of six different professions.  Business administration, educational administration, law, teaching, social work, and medicine. Descriptive rather than prescriptive framework. General model comprises a series of tasks and decisions.

Originating the idea are formal need assessments, requests from a client, availability of project monies, legislative mandates and suggestions from campus faculty.    Developing the idea are informal test of the idea with practitioner, a review of literature and a market analysis. 

Making a commitment is selecting instructors and using existing course or develop a new one. Developing the programs objectives were determined, subject matter was developed and materials were accumulated. Teaching the course are as planned and some flexibility.  Evaluating the impact are determination of what to evaluate, developing instruments, administration of the evaluation.

According to Pennington & Green program development is a form of administrative decision-making. The decisions were based on contextual factors such as climate, internal and external constraints and resources.

According to Houle’s Triple-Mode that model are focus on strengthen professional performance.  Planning itself should be part of the educational activity.  Suggests a comprehensive educational process consists of 3 modes of participation are instruction, inquiry, and reinforcement. Originated from several models used by medical profession.

Practice-Audit Model are aeveloped by Queeney and Smutz (Pennsylvania State University), Based on pharmacy profession, similar to Houle’s model, Both are practice oriented and similar process are used in carrying out the framework., Both are prescriptive frameworks. Unique characteristic of this model its implementation involved a collaboration between a higher education institution and professional associations.

CPE educators should make their espoused theories congruent with their theories-in-use which is context-specific which include personal beliefs and values about learning, Proper place of the professions in society, whether they are technically trained.  Some theories-in-use are more successful than others.  CPE would become more effective if educators see themselves as practical theorists are Analyzing their own practice, Making explicit their theories-in-use present actual planning frameworks

Conclusion :

We are in a new age, the age of information and of global competition.  Familiar certainties and old ways of doing things are disappearing.  The types of jobs we do have changed as have the industries in which we work and the skills they need. 

At the same time new opportunities are opening up as we see the potential of new technologies to change our lives for the better.  We have no choice but to prepare for this new age in which they key to success will be continuous education and development of the human mind and imagination.

In this rapidly changing world, schools share the responsibility for maintaining competence with individual professionals, professional associations, governmental bodies and private vendors.

As accountability and cooperation become more central to effective administration, the development of partnerships for both pre-service and continuing education courses must become a higher priority. The Continuing Education combination of rapid change and fiscal retrenchment pose immense challenges for higher education.

Lifelong learning and CPE have become part of the fabric of individual and organizational life but there is still much to be done to translate the rhetoric into reality.    Many individuals lack the necessary competencies to manage their learning and employers have a long way to go before they can claim to have developed learning cultures at work. 

REFERENCES

1.           Sunny Stout (1993). Managing Training. London: Kogan Page Limited, Practical Trainer Series.

2.           Gower edited by Anthony Landale (1999). Gower Handbook of Training and Development Third Edition. Hampshire, England, Gower Publishing Limited.

3.           Donald L. Kirkpatrick (1983). A Practical Guide for Supervisory Training and Development. USA, Addison Wesley Publishing Company.

4.           Raymond A. Noe (2005).  Employee Training and Development Third Edition. N.Y., McGraw Hill Irwin.

5.           Garry Mitchell (1993).  The trainer’s Handbook The AMA Guide to Effective Training Second Edition.  N.Y., American Management Association.

6.           Karen Lawson (2006). The Trainer’s Handbook Second Edition.  U.S. Pfieffer.

7.           Knowles, M. S. (1973). The adult learner: A neglected species. Houston, TX: Gulf.

8.           Laubach Literacy Action. (1996). Teaching adults: An ESL resource book. Syracuse, NY: New Readers Press.

9.           R. Wayne Mondy (2008).  Human Resource Management Tenth Edition.  New Jersey, Pearson Prentice Hall.

10.        Gary Dessler (1995). Managing Organizations. New York, The Dryden Press.

11.        Don Harvey & Donald R. Brown (2001). An Experiential Approach to Organizaiton Development Sixth Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, Prentice Hall.