Concept Learning

1ST TOPIC  : CONCEPT OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Readings : Aedneters - opinions on education and training.

Summaries :

Training humans is teaching them how to perform specific tasks involves about 60/40 physical/mental skills.  Training is focused, directed towards specific objectives and takes place within a very limited time frame.  It does not concern with a history, rationale, philosophy, significant amount of supportive literature and significant independent research.  Training programs include education and vice versa.  Successful human training programs must be designed to be flexible, respectful of individual differences and responsive to the needs, requirements and capabilities of the people participating. It is inhuman to give training to human with toucher, pain, stress and deprivation.

Training involved having participant focus on a specific skill that they need to be able to apply immediately on the job.  In business community training seemed cost effective and efficient than education which perceived as broader, time consuming and expensive.  Meaning from dictionary, education is derived from word educe or draw out whereas training is pulling along or dragging behind. We have potential to achieve by educe ourselves, whereas trains seems to imply that superior and labour (a drag) to bring learners to proficiency.

Training refers to specific skills or knowledge.  It is essential to perform a specific job or task while education is viewed as a broader concept and need specific skills or knowledge that improves one’s ability to perform a job or task to enhance the individual’s ability rather than being essential to the performance of the specific job or task.

Training includes skills knowledge and attitude in a variety of settings that help the individual develop the ability to think critically and apply the skill in new and changing circumstances.  These called training, education and learning.  The students to continue with their education and interested to getting jobs with higher goals and dreams and get certificate from the entire training programs to use to get job and achieve the dreams and goals.

Training is for conditioning period whereas education to make person to be lifelong learners.

In educating professionals it is clearly that training and education are needed and have a synergistic relationship.  In life we need both, training and education.  Educating people is about moulding minds and values into shapes acceptable to the educator.  It is role of the facilitator in setting, to infuse this collaborative learning with the skills and information that she/he is charged to convey.

As facilitator has to facilitate of learning, getting the learner to use their own knowledge as per folks saying, give a him a fish, he eats for a day but teach him how to fish, he eats for a lifetime.  A person can be trained on a machine how to use  e.g computer in a rather brief period of time.  Education refers to something that takes a long time to understand e.g teaches someone to speak other language.  Education involves higher level learning.

The term training is often used in a more time-delimited business context, whereas the term education is often used in the context of more formalized instruction over a longer time period, at a standard educational institution.  Training and education are semantic both are important.  Training and education have much in common.  Often good training may well be good education and they have some objectives.  Indeed there is a connection between training and education and the search for difference need to give way to learning and how the individual applies their learning.  People will be curious and think of connections with or without formal training/education. 

This is human nature and the cutting edge of learning for the individual.  Over the course of lives, it has potential to become a tapestry of great richness and depth.  The trainer or Instructor responsibility for the outcomes of the training.  The intent of the program and the responsibility of the faculty is to bring each student to a predetermined, and measurable, level of performance, at minimum.  The faculties have difficulty grasping the responsibilities of including properly planned and executed training programs in support of their educational endeavours because of that they are being criticized, their enrolment is dropping, and economic support from their constituencies/electorate is flagging.

Conclusion:

This topic discussed how central learning in education and training were become to organizational survival and success.  It is to help change attitudes to learning and to encourage people to learn.  This also implies opening minds of employees to how and where they learn and the need to take learning out of the classroom.  It is to promote learning within organizations the most important step to take is to recognize that learning needs to happen, continuously, at every level of the organization.  Creating and sustaining a learning culture has become a high priority for organizations.

Education is associated with schooling.  According to Adler (1982), the traditional view of education when think of education, it is tending to think of development of children, and not of development, of learning in school and not outside the school.  Darkenwald & Merriam (1982) has broader view that education is observed that the family, the church, the work place, the mass media, the library, and many other institutions also play important roles in the education of people, both young and old.  Education has new concept that everywhere, every time and anywhere.

Peterson (1979) refers as formal is institution-based, structured learning relying on teacher’s instruction; informal refers to non-school-based, less structured learning not pursued for credit, including what we called unintentional learning.  Non-formal refers to organized educational activities offered by non-school organizations; this concept has evolved chiefly among adult education leaders in developing nations.  Non-education is characterized by flexibility, relevance to contemporary problems, and voluntary participation.

Training and education are defined as the systematic acquisition of skills, rules, concepts, or attitudes that results in improved performance in another environment.  Education and training can make a change in cognitive -   mind, affective - emotion- value/attitude and psychomotor-skill ability.  Semantic or not, training is part of education.  It is changing people with educative and trained. 

2ND TOPIC : TRAINING AND RELATED CONCEPTS

Issues and challenges in training and development

Readings : i. Mitchell - Issues in training

Summaries :

The changing nature of the work force, with fewer competent entry-level workers at a time when jobs require more skills, the growth and proper role of technology in training and the soft management training versus hard-core skills training.

The Changing Work Force

It is the depth of change in the work force, technologies, and marketplace.  Summary of Workforce 2000 that will impact on training by Hudson (1987) tells us that in 1990s, 27% of new jobs demand only minimal, low entry-level skills.  40% in mid 1980s.  The 50% will demand post of secondary education.  The 10% of the work force by younger workers will decline more than 50% to around 40%.  The average age of the work force will increase from 36 to 39 years.  An older work force, coupled with a demand for newer skills (re-training).  Many workers need to change jobs 5 - 6 times in a career.  80% of new workers will be women, minorities, and immigrants.  In 1999, 10% of the entering work force will be able to solve in a simple algebraic equation.

In 1989 the American Management Association (AMA) conducted survey and findings that 15% (27 million people) of the adult population in the US are functionally illiterate, millions qualify as literate but still unable to learn job skills from instructional materials.  The Educational Testing Service reported that fewer than half of the nation’s 17 year old high school students could figure the area of a rectangle, or knew that 87% of 10 was less than 10.  8 out of 10 firms surveyed that test job applicants in basic skills simply refuse to hire candidates who cannot pass those tests.

Respond to survey and findings as:

The workforce 2000 study indicates the number of applicants who can pass the skills tests will decrease, requiring companies to conduct longer, more costly searches for fewer new hires.  The skills requirements will be increasing. Hiring only those who can pass standardized basic skills tests. 

They can increase salary levels at the lower echelons to attract more-qualified applicants.  Only few companies have increasing salary levels for lower-rank employees who have long service.  When qualified candidates become rarer, competition for new hires will become an inflated jungle of cut throat recruiting practices. 

Lower the standards and accept more entry-level workers with less ability.  The effect of lowering the standards to keep up the numbers will be a considerable decline in workers efficiency as new hires take longer to get up to speed on the job.  Decline in efficiency as current workers are distracted for longer periods of time to train new hires and decline in job performance standards as the quality of service sinks to the level of ability of the new unskilled work force.  These cannot help a company stay competitive.

Send work abroad via satellite to countries where entry-level standards are much higher. It is attractive at first but long run weakens the U.S. economy. It increasingly competitive global marketplace such a policy is also self-defeating.  If destroy the infrastructure at home, we lessen the quality of life too.  Sending economy abroad is no way to build it at home.

Form partnerships with schools in order to improve the calibre and direction of the education their entry-level labour pool receives. They were not finding them among the high school graduates who were applying for work as tellers, clerks, and data-entry operators.  A number of banks, spearheaded by American Express Bank, set up the Academy as a partnership with the New York City public schools.

Conclusion

This topic about current issues in training.  We can see the changing nature of the work force, the incredible growth of technology in training, and its proper role, the dichotomy of soft versus skills areas of training, the final decade of the century and the impact on training of the entry of Euro 92 and Eastern Europe into the trading arena.

People learnt best when they can interact with each other.  In the U.S., Japan & Germany highly technologized cultures, training is still done live.  Learning is a humanizing activity, therefore can only be supplemented by technology, not replaced by it.  They wanted to learn hard-core, no-nonsense, hands-on, job-related skills.  Keep affective objectives to a minimum and concentrate on the skills-oriented ones.

We conclude that the next decade holds nothing but promise for the growth of training as an aspect of the business world.

ii.      Fitzgerald - Training versus Development

Training defined as the acquisition of knowledge and skill for present tasks, a tool to help individuals contribute to the organization and be successful in their current positions.  Two key points are training and develop skills.  People need some level of training if they are to meet expectations, contribute to their organizations, and experience a high degree of success.  Those elements lead to job satisfaction.

Development defined as the acquisition of knowledge and skill that may be used in the present or future, the preparation of individual to enrich the organization in the future, the act of being involved in many different types of training activities and classes.

 iii.    Saiyaddin - Perceptions of Sponsoring Managers, Training Organizations, and Top

         Management Attitude Towards Training.

Malaysia performances in the manufacturing, construction and service sectors boosted the gross domestic product (GDP) to 9.9% for the first quarter of 1995.  Unemployment is virtually nonexistent (3%) and inflation is under control with a slight increase in consumer price index. It has been identified as one of the top 20 exporting nations in the world. To maintain this economic scenario, it needs a large and professionally trained workforce. 

Two schemes have been initiated:

The first is the Human Resources Development Fund (HRDF). It is aimed at enabling the private sector to play an important role in identifying necessary skills, determining training needs and undertaking accelerated systematic training programmes to prepare the workforce. The second major focus on providing higher education to those not qualified to get it through the traditional route.  These attempts are further complemented by the efforts of about 200 management consulting/training organizations operating in Malaysia (Arthur Anderson & Co., 1991), professional associations and schools of management. Practically all of them organize in-company training programmes or sponsor their employees to external programmes.

Most of the studies on training in Malaysia seem to focus on need identification and facilities for training (e.g. Quah Phaik Suan, 1973; Asma Abdullah, 1985; Hamid et. al., 1987). A more comprehensive and relatively recent study throws some interesting light on the training activities in Malaysia (Saiyadain and Juhary Ali, 1995). It found that as many as 82.6% of the organizations sponsored their managers for training, including foreign training, to 25 countries of the world.  On an average these organizations spent 4.65% of the managerial payroll on the training of managers, but few bothered to ascertain post training effectiveness.

The main reason may seem to lie in their inability to see the tangible benefits of training given that the average cost of training is 4.65% of managerial payroll (Saiyadain and Juhary Ali, 1995). Wagel (1977) found that 75% of the firms have no formal method of evaluating training effectiveness.  According to Easterby-Smith (1985) found that only one firm conducted some form of evaluation on a regular basis.

His result showed that the organizations were dissatisfied with the present situation and often offered apologetic explanations about plans being a foot to change things in future.

Saiyadain and Juhary Ali (1995) found that some managers sponsored their subordinates to training programmes to reward them for good work (paid holiday) or pass problem managers to trainers for the duration of training. Many times, managers do not "release" employees for training despite advance knowledge of dates and durations. Some send any person to make up the quota. Training becomes statistics and reinforces the impression that it does not have much value added.

In a sarcastic article, Meals (1986) identifies five activities that lead to basic training waste (a

compelling desire to waste money on training vestigial idealism). These are, (1) using training to reward outstanding performance, (2) never evaluate the results of training, (3) assign trainees "democratically" (randomly) to training programmes, (4) keeping detailed training cost secret, and (5) avoiding use of training-produced capabilities.

The results of this study indicate a general negative perception of the efforts of training organizations. The training organizations have been perceived to offer training programmes not very relevant to the needs of organizations, too theoretical, one-shot with no follow-up and not very interactive. Most training organizations in Malaysia are not exclusive training organizations. Training is one of the several activities they perform. They have neither the professional competence nor the resources to identify training needs and mount relevant training programmes. Training is a business. They depend on outsiders who have the "pulling capacity" to attract large audiences for a heavy price.

Conclusion :

A useful approach for understanding the training process is to consider it as a system whose boundaries interact with the rest of the business.   A company that has already gone to this amount of trouble is very likely to be committed to raining, but it would be a mistake to take this commitment for granted.  If it is taken for granted, it often turns to apathy or resistance.

 It is also not worth going nay further without obtaining a high level of commitment to training.  However, senior management commitment to training is not enough by itself.  The training department has to get its own house in order and the organization has to be aware of the importance that is attached to training.

It is very easy to say that effective training has to be aligned with a company’s business directions and values; that the training department has to provide courses which support the company’s goals; and that anyone who is involved in managing the training process ha to have a clear idea of where the business sis going.  All this assumes that those involved in running the business have a clear idea of where they are going.  Unfortunately,   this is not always the case.  And when the foundation is not firm the training process is unable to support the business.  This means that for effective training we have to start with business basics.

The process for getting the basics right for any department is the same as for the whole company.  This is no less true for the training function.   As previously stated, training has to be aligned with the business direction of the company.  If the company has got its basics sorted out, and communicated them effectively, the training function should be in no doubt as to which business directions and values should be supported.

3RD TOPIC : 30 THINGS WE KNOW FOR SURE ABOUT ADULT LEARNING
(RON ZEMKE & SUSAN ZEMKE

Adult Learning is all about motivation, designing curriculum for adults and working with adults in the classroom.  Adults motivated to learn and too cope with specific life-change events.  The more life-change events the more adults seek out learning opportunities.  The learning experiences are directly related to the life-change events.  The learning will take place during and after the events.  Learning is a means to an end, not an end in itself.  Adults do have ‘teachable moment’.

Curriculum designs are adults prefer single-concept, single-theory courses that focus on the application.  Adults need to integrate new ideas with what they already know in order to keep and use the new information.  New information that conflicts with old ones is integrated more slowly.  New information that has little connection with old ones is acquired slowly.  Fast-paced, complex or unusual learning tasks interfere with learning. 

Adults compensate slower psychomotor learning with more accurate and making fewer trial-and-error ventures.  Adults tend to take errors personally that affect self-esteem.  Curriculum must in concert with learner and organizational values.  Programs need to be designed to accept viewpoints from different stages of adult life.  A concept needs to be explained from more than one value set.  Adults prefer self-directed and self-designed learning projects.  Technology help adults plan self-directed learning projects.  Straightforward how-to is the preferred content orientation.  Self-directed projects does not mean isolation.

In the classroom the learning environment must be physically and psychologically comfortable.  Self-esteem and ego are on the line when asked to try new behaviour in front of class.  Adult life experiences are invaluable asset to be acknowledged, tapped and used.  Adults like open-ended questions to draw out their knowledge and experiences.  Adult learning requires active participation.  Timing is important in adult learning.  The instructor needs to protect minority opinion, keep disagreements civil and unheated.  New knowledge and skill requires focused effort.  Trainer need to take an eclectic rather than a single theory-based approach to developing strategies and procedures.

Conclusion :

Adults are changing and developing all the time.  Mature people that they have a framework of ideas and experience into which everything new must be fitted in order to make sense.  The framework has been formed through reflection on a variety of experiences. Mature people may find it easy to recognise challenges to their frameworks of thought, but hard to adapt those frameworks.  They lived through a number of years and a range of experiences, from many of which they have learnt.  Some of the experiences have been good and positive, others have been bad and negative.  Positive or negative, they are part of the baggage brought by adults to learning opportunities and colour the way in which people are able to respond to learning opportunities.

We expect adults to take responsibility for their actions, and adult learners to take responsibility for their own learning.  To encourage this to happen, adults need to become actively involved in the design of learning opportunities.  Adult learning emerges from our discussion as a complex process, affected by many factors and discussed in many ways from a variety of perspectives.  The provider of training and development for adults is faced with a bewildering array of elements to take into account in constructing learning opportunities. 

There are many different theories of adult learning, not all of which are totally compatible but the research work goes on and the discussions grow steadily.  No one theory covers everything.   We need to be aware of the different ideas, but we also need to recognize that these are ideas.  They are ways of helping us to draw in a systematic fashion on the experience of others.  They are not prescriptions. We need to recognize that we cannot do everything.  We can be aware of the different styles of learning and of the enormous differences between people on any given training programme or event.  But we cannot take account of everything.  It is therefore vital to consider what is appropriate and possible in any particular leaning situation.  Providers must not be worried by failure.  The perfect training event has never happened and probably never will, human beings what they are.  Those professionally involved in training and development can only do their best and learn from their experiences.

4TH TOPIC : DIMENSIONS OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

All learning experiences provided to employees to attain organizational objectives training and development also known as HRD. Activities include development programs, formal training programs, and informal in-house training programs.

The elements in T & D are challenges and issues, systems approach, assessing T & D needs, collecting and analyzing job data, constructing criterion measures, writing training objectives, choosing a delivery systems, selecting and sequencing content, selecting and using training strategies and media, selecting training instructors and trainees, producing training documents conducting training, evaluating training systems, following up graduates, calculating costs and benefits.

Collecting and analyzing job data in T&D must relates to job performance. Learning experiences must relate to job, duties, and tasks.  Job data must be collected and analyzed.  Constructing criterion measures are called job performance measures (JPMs). It is to determine whether trainees can perform the tasks. The measurements include competency, intelligence, aptitude, and personality measures.  Selecting & sequencing content are examine each performance objective to identify specific facts, concepts, principles, skills, and operations involved in each task, arrange the teaching points and learning activities in the best sequence for learning.

Selecting and using training strategies and media instructional strategy are combination of teaching methods and techniques. What methods, techniques and media to use in conducting training must be based on training objectives, course content, trainee population, instructional staff, space, facilities, equipment, instructional materials, time, and cost. Instructional method is basic approach to give teaching, lecture, demonstration, conference, performance, programmed instruction, study assignment, tutoring, team teaching, participative methods, or a combination. Instructional technique is a means of instruction that complements a method. E.g. Questioning, handling student responses, and using ava.

Selection of printed media or duplicated aids  such as books, pamphlets, handouts. Graphic aids such as pictures, whiteboards, charts, diagrams. Three-dimensional aids such as real objects, models, displays. Projected aids such as transparencies, film, video, LCD, computers and auditory aids  such as audio tape, disc.

Selecting instructors, trainees or instructors are very important.  They need to be trained.  It must be competence in subject-matter, andragogical knowledge and skills, communication skills, and personal traits and qualities.  Roles of instructor are planning a course, preparing learning materials, presenting instruction, guiding learning activities, evaluating learning,  and managing training.  When selecting trainees are must be carefully screened and selected for suitability. Information sources for selection such as nominations, application, tests,  self-reports, interviews.  Producing training documents are advantages of training documents includes long/short term planning plan, budget, programs of instruction (POI), lesson plans, and evaluation plan.

An evaluating training has summative and formative purposes.   It is to determine effectiveness, accountability, and existing of training department.  It has many models, gap in theory and practice. It must be practical based on evaluation objectives.  Components to be evaluated are trainees, instructors, course content, sequence and time allocations, instructional strategies, materials, equipment and facilities.  Perspectives required by trainee perspective, instructor perspective, evaluator perspective, training manager perspective and line supervisor perspective.  Caused of pitfalls in evaluation are poor planning, lack of objectivity, improper interpretation and inappropriate use of results.  Meaning of evaluation is observation, ratings, trainee surveys or interviews, group interviews, instructor surveys or interviews.  Direct costs includes administration and supervision, instruction, instructional materials, training equipment while indirect costs   includes services

Utilities and facilities such as trainee costs, instructor costs, instructional materials, equipment are cost per trainee, cost per hour, materials cost per trainee, equipment cost per trainee, Return on Investment (ROI) = net program saving or benefits program costs.

Conclusion :

The challenge for development professionals is to help change attitudes to learning and to encourage people to learn.  This also implies opening the minds of employees to how and where they learn and the learn to take learning out of the classroom. 

What I have to emphasize here is that for effective training to take place it must be wedded to the business.  Managers who are trying to implement training strategies need to understand what business objectives training is trying to support and then work out the best ways to deliver them.  The design of effective training can be a complex issue and needs to be approached with care.  However, provided those involved in the analysis and design elements have the appropriate skills and the time available, as systematic approach will result in effective training which will be of value both to the individuals concerned and the organization.  The strength of accelerated learning is not so much in its new techniques as in its systematic sturdiness.  The trainer can have confidence that it is founded on robust research, and that they already have all the resources necessary to begin accelerating their training process.  If the trainer is able to start with a `safe’ and sympathetic group, even the most unusual aspect, the review concert will prove to be easy to deliver.

The potential benefits of developing facilitation skills are many but the real magic of the approach is that it brings into the open opportunities for learning and development which can then be translated into performance improvements.  Whether working as a facilitator in one-to-one or in one - to - many situations by using this approach you are operating from a principle that believes in the potential of yourself and others.  A principle that sits squarely in line with the realities of business today.

Budgeting and financial control are essentially management activities.  Employee development practitioners need to `run a tight ship’ and to achieve this it is necessary to be close to the business planning process and the business managers.  The process requires a balanced integration of employee development skills, a business focus and an understanding of financial estimating and budgetary control.

5TH TOPIC : SUCCESSFUL PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES

The solid research base is lacking and hundreds of literature prescribe how to develop educational programs, useful for specific or for all professions.  Practitioners skeptical about the prescriptive frameworks.

Practice involves personality conflicts, political factors, and resources constraints.  The  limited research shows no continuing educators use textbook planning frameworks even for programs that are ‘successful’. It does not mean practitioners do not think in systematic ways.

Textbook planning frameworks do not adequately prescribe and describe those systematic processes. Practitioners have personal values, believes and institutional context that influence program development.  Central task for effective practice are make own framework explicit and analyze its assumptions and principles.

An Overview of Program Development Frameworks

Frameworks from Individual Professions

Sork (1983) found 22 literature on CPE program planning. Equal emphasis give to both the activity levels and organizational levels of programming. Most planning frameworks were designed for members of a single organization. The level of sophistication needed to use the frameworks is relatively low. Most publications emphasize the ‘how’ rather than the ‘why’. Planning steps similar with Tyler’s questions.  Highly prescriptive in nature little attention to context.  Difference emphasis given to the linkage between the educational program and the expected changes in professional practice; practice emphasis more than the framework

Cross-Professional Frameworks are Suggested by Pennington and Green (1976) from study of six different professions.  Business administration, educational administration, law, teaching, social work, and medicine. Descriptive rather than prescriptive framework. General model comprises a series of tasks and decisions.

Originating the idea are formal need assessments, requests from a client, availability of project monies, legislative mandates and suggestions from campus faculty.    Developing the idea are informal test of the idea with practitioner, a review of literature and a market analysis. 

Making a commitment is selecting instructors and using existing course or develop a new one. Developing the programs objectives were determined, subject matter was developed and materials were accumulated. Teaching the course are as planned and some flexibility.  Evaluating the impact are determination of what to evaluate, developing instruments, administration of the evaluation.

According to Pennington & Green program development is a form of administrative decision-making. The decisions were based on contextual factors such as climate, internal and external constraints and resources.

According to Houle’s Triple-Mode that model are focus on strengthen professional performance.  Planning itself should be part of the educational activity.  Suggests a comprehensive educational process consists of 3 modes of participation are instruction, inquiry, and reinforcement. Originated from several models used by medical profession.

Practice-Audit Model are aeveloped by Queeney and Smutz (Pennsylvania State University), Based on pharmacy profession, similar to Houle’s model, Both are practice oriented and similar process are used in carrying out the framework., Both are prescriptive frameworks. Unique characteristic of this model its implementation involved a collaboration between a higher education institution and professional associations.

CPE educators should make their espoused theories congruent with their theories-in-use which is context-specific which include personal beliefs and values about learning, Proper place of the professions in society, whether they are technically trained.  Some theories-in-use are more successful than others.  CPE would become more effective if educators see themselves as practical theorists are Analyzing their own practice, Making explicit their theories-in-use present actual planning frameworks

Conclusion :

We are in a new age, the age of information and of global competition.  Familiar certainties and old ways of doing things are disappearing.  The types of jobs we do have changed as have the industries in which we work and the skills they need. 

At the same time new opportunities are opening up as we see the potential of new technologies to change our lives for the better.  We have no choice but to prepare for this new age in which they key to success will be continuous education and development of the human mind and imagination.

In this rapidly changing world, schools share the responsibility for maintaining competence with individual professionals, professional associations, governmental bodies and private vendors.

As accountability and cooperation become more central to effective administration, the development of partnerships for both pre-service and continuing education courses must become a higher priority. The Continuing Education combination of rapid change and fiscal retrenchment pose immense challenges for higher education.

Lifelong learning and CPE have become part of the fabric of individual and organizational life but there is still much to be done to translate the rhetoric into reality.    Many individuals lack the necessary competencies to manage their learning and employers have a long way to go before they can claim to have developed learning cultures at work. 

REFERENCES

1.           Sunny Stout (1993). Managing Training. London: Kogan Page Limited, Practical Trainer Series.

2.           Gower edited by Anthony Landale (1999). Gower Handbook of Training and Development Third Edition. Hampshire, England, Gower Publishing Limited.

3.           Donald L. Kirkpatrick (1983). A Practical Guide for Supervisory Training and Development. USA, Addison Wesley Publishing Company.

4.           Raymond A. Noe (2005).  Employee Training and Development Third Edition. N.Y., McGraw Hill Irwin.

5.           Garry Mitchell (1993).  The trainer’s Handbook The AMA Guide to Effective Training Second Edition.  N.Y., American Management Association.

6.           Karen Lawson (2006). The Trainer’s Handbook Second Edition.  U.S. Pfieffer.

7.           Knowles, M. S. (1973). The adult learner: A neglected species. Houston, TX: Gulf.

8.           Laubach Literacy Action. (1996). Teaching adults: An ESL resource book. Syracuse, NY: New Readers Press.

9.           R. Wayne Mondy (2008).  Human Resource Management Tenth Edition.  New Jersey, Pearson Prentice Hall.

10.        Gary Dessler (1995). Managing Organizations. New York, The Dryden Press.

11.        Don Harvey & Donald R. Brown (2001). An Experiential Approach to Organizaiton Development Sixth Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, Prentice Hall.

Assignment on Adult Learners

ADULT LEARNERS - HOW THEY ADAPT THE LEARNING PROCESS

1.0    INTRODUCTION

Mazanah et al. (2001), the objectives of adult education are not only used to increase the career opportunities and skills. Adults are also intending to obtain new experiences, socialization and contribute to the society. A continuous education declaration which parallel with the needs involved the adults and importance of lifelong learning was approved in international level (UNESCO, 1999).

Kolb (1984) argues that effective experiential learning entails the possession of four different

abilities: concrete experiments, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation.  In this respect Kolb's model is particularly elegant, since it offers both a way to understand individual people's different learning styles, and also an explanation of a cycle of experiential learning that applies to us all. Kolb includes this 'cycle of learning' as a central principle his experiential learning theory, typically expressed as four-stage cycle of learning, in which 'immediate or concrete experiences' provide a basis for 'observations and reflections'. These 'observations and reflections' are assimilated and distilled into 'abstract concepts' producing new implications for action which can be 'actively tested' in turn creating new experiences.  Teaching methods that proposed through adult education principle is different from teaching children (Knowles, 1972). The term of ‘andragogy’ comes from Greek which giving a definition of ‘to lead or educate adults’ (Hartree, 1984). Krajnc (1989), important of the term ‘andragogy’ giving awareness especially to specialist educator that there are not every principle and practice in education are suitable to every level of age.

In Malaysia context (Nor Azizah, 1997), adult education is more emphasize on the human development especially for the adults from rural area. The goal of adult education is to improve self achievement from the aspect of individual knowledge and skills in order to increase quality of life. Human development programs in Malaysia are provided by three major groups: private sector, non-government organizations and government agencies.

There are many literacy classes that conducted by different groups in Malaysia after the establishment of Malaysia in 1963 and those classes develop to Sabah and Sarawak (Mazanah & Associates, 2001). The important period of time for adult education development was during Tun Abdul Razak be the Prime Minister in Malaysia (Sufean, 1993). With the increasing on the importance of education, there is growing awareness among ministries, government agencies, non-government organizations, voluntary 1982).

Adult education is parallel with national education policy. Public sector is playing a crucial role to prepare the facilities and non-formal exercises for adults who have no chance to enroll themselves in formal education (Ministry of Education in Malaysia, 1979). According to Norzaini Azman (2006), government agencies, private sector and society awareness are playing an important role especially from the importance and contribution towards society and country development.

2.0       ADULT ISSUES ON LEARNING ENGLISH LANGUAGE

I find that the English standard of the local public universities students nowadays is completely terrible. The majority of university students speak Malay, Mandarin, Tamil or his/her own dialect rather than English. Their mastery of English is extremely atrocious regardless of race. I think we have overly expected the university and its students. Some students there reflected to me that some lecturers refuse to use English in their lectures and the students also tend to speak in their respective mother tongue. If this is the case, I wonder how university’s student would improve. No wonder there are getting more students choosing private universities or going abroad.  The problem of English language is not only in Malaysia but worldwide. It happened in other countries even in United States and Japan as they are flooded with foreign workers and foreign students as well.  I consider this as an issue because this is the problem that our community has to face for many years. What I can glean from this never-ending rants from various parties about how our students, parents and society really should recognize the importance of mastering English.

If we try to observe some of some governments’ department for example Immigration Department in Putrajaya, surprisingly they have customer service or front desk assistant whom everyday liaise with people from all over countries in the world and yet they could not speak good English.  They even do not understand simple English.  Another scenario is in my firm where I am attached with now, some of the officers or managers barely understand the simple English.  They have a huge problem especially in reading and writing.  This situation is not suppose to happen as from age 7 or as early as 4 until age of 23 we were in school or university studying but yet still have problem to understand and mastering in this language. 

How the new generations going to face the working life after graduating?  How to explore in these very challenging world today?  This problem must be fixed immediately.  The government has to study again how to improve the English educational in Malaysia from primary up to higher level like universities. No doubt some family with English background are very good and successful to conquer this language but this is a minority community.  It's not that people do not recognize the importance. Since the dawn of the English media we have realized that English is an International lingua franca and with that it must be mastered. This realization is already there and hence, we have the mushrooming of language centres.

If we see, mostly intellectual people are from western country. They code sentences from intellects from western.  If we do not understand English language, how are we  able to explore the knowledge. 

3.0       THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADULT LEARNING

Edward L. Thorndike (1900), he concluded that there are three laws that govern how adults learn:

i.       The law of readiness

We only learn when we are ready to learn.  It includes seeing a need to learn, feeling a desire to learn, being interested in the subject, and having sufficient skills to both comprehend and utilize the new information.

ii.      The law of effect

Nothing succeeds like success.  This law points out that the more success we feel in learning, the more excited we get about learning.  We need to gain pleasure from out learning, and the successful performance of a formerly difficult task is on e of life’s greatest pleasures.

iii.     The law of exercise

In essence, practice makes perfect.  This means that hands-on drill is necessary.  It also means that the more personally we are involved in learning that is, the hearder we work at it the more it engages us and the more we learn.

4.0       THE PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

There are ten recognized of adult education:

i)            People learn only what they are ready to learn.

ii)          People learn best what they actually perform.

iii)        People learn from their mistakes.

iv)        People learn easiest what in familiar to them.

v)          People favour different senses for learning.

vi)        People  learn methodically and, in our culture, systematically.

vii)      People cannot learn what they cannot understand.

viii)    People learn through practice.

ix)        People learn better when they can see their own progress.

x)          People respond best when what they are to learn is presented uniquely for them.  Each of us is different.

5.0    ADULT LEARNING PATTERNS

The English language has been widely spoken and used in Malaysia for many years, so much so that it has automatically become the second language of the country. Nearly, every household in the cities in Malaysia uses English, even if it is not the first language of the house.

With the world getting smaller due to globalisation, the importance of the English language, which has been dubbed the international trading language, is very much evident. In this Internet and Information Age, in order to achieve international stature, it is important to know the English language as English is the lingua franca.

According to Darkenwald and Merriam (1982, p9), that Adult Education is a process whereby persons, whose major social roles are characteristics of adult status, undertake systematic and sustained learning activities for purpose of bringing about changes in knowledge, attitudes, values or skills.

Duffy & Jonassen (1992), in other hand believed that learning emphasizes the creation of a conducive learning environment. It encourages the learner to construct his own perception of reality based on his or her experiences and beliefs as well as through negotiation with others. This theory called Constructive theory.  Constructivism focuses more on context and the learning process.

Constructivists believe that there is a real world that learners experience and meaning is imposed on the world by the learners, rather than existing in the world independently of them. They also believe that there are many ways to structure the world and there are many meanings or perspectives for any event or concept.

These are what we need to stress on, knowledge, attitudes, values and skills on each adult learners how to improve English language. The changes of these not only involved adult learner but also government, private sector, society and all surroundings us that can contribute to make these changes happened.

Adult education organizations deliver a wide range of education and training services for adults in community. They provide opportunities for people to connect and reconnect with learning at all stage of lives. The division of adult education support adult basic education, adult secondary education and English language. Adult education programs emphasize basic skills such as reading, writing, English language competency and problem solving.

We are increasingly aware of the importance of access to knowledge that technology provides through English. The English language is widely used throughout the world today, and our graduates will be entering the workforce where English proficiency becomes mandatory for your success. For this matter, more and more students either local or international are equipping themselves with the English language by attending special English courses and programmes in Malaysia.

Therefore, it is not surprising to note that this language is being offered by many of the higher educational institutions, not only as a programme by itself but also as a preparatory subject to gain entry into undergraduate programmes offered by the local institutions as well as overseas institutions. The information about andragogy should widely use among adults especially in the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process. Furthermore, instructors in andragogy field should carry out the responsibility to increase the credibility of adult education too.

These days the major language for study in schools, universities and communication
Malaysian has been influenced by the British colonisation period, to use English in their daily transactions. The English language is being used extensively in Malaysia, in commercial or social settings, formal or informal situations – in business transactions, internet communication, advertisements and the entertainment industry.

For some homes, it has become the second language, used in everyday conversation among family members and friends. Some Malaysian homes also use this language as their mother tongue.

Owing to its place of importance in the new knowledge economy, English, as a second language, continues to be a compulsory subject taught at all levels in every Malaysian school. On top of that, the subjects of mathematics and science are being taught in English in schools at all levels.        

At the tertiary level, although the medium of instruction at undergraduate level in the public universities is the National language (Bahasa Malaysia), with effect from the year 2005, English is used to teach the science and mathematics-related subjects. All private higher educational institutions use the English language as the medium of instruction.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      In a Multi-lingual Society like Malaysia, the advantage for students to learn English is that they will learn the necessary communications skills to equip them for a successful life. The students will not only acquire the relevant study skills required for college or university entrance, but will also be equipped with knowledge essential in the working world. Whether it is for personal satisfaction or social enrichment, or simply to excel in your academic and work endeavours, you will find it advantageous to learn English in the Malaysian multi-lingual environment.

Apart from the public schools, language centres found in all major cities and towns in Malaysia offer English language courses that cater to the individual needs of the people, whether on a personal or professional basis. As such, there are classes which offer English for academic purposes to help students in their academic programmes that are conducted in English, as well as English language classes for specific purposes to help those who need English for career enhancement or development. Such classes are not only popular among the Malaysians but also among the foreigners (students and expatriates living in the country) who may require the English language during their stay in Malaysia, whether for personal or business reasons.

The English language has played and will play an important role in everyone's life. Therefore, the higher educational institutions in Malaysia have seen to it that various levels are designed for English language programmes to accommodate the different levels of proficiency of the individual students and to suit the various needs of different students.

6.0       ADULT LEARNING THEORY

Adult theory learning was developed out of a need for a specific theory of how adults learn.  Most educational theories as well as formal educational institutions were developed exclusively to educate children and youth.  Educational psychologists, recognizing the limitation of formal education theories, developed andragogy, the theory of adult learning. 

Malcolm Knowles is most frequently associated with adult learning.  This model is based on several assumptions:

i)            Adults have the need to know why they are learning something.

ii)          Adults have a need to be self-directed.

iii)        Adult bring more-related experiences into the learning situation.

iv)        Adults enter into a learning experience with a problem-centred approach to learning.

v)          Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators.

Adult learning theory is especially important to consider in developing training programs e.g English language for adults in university or organizations because the audience for many such programs tends to be adults, not of whom have not spent a majority of their time in a formal education setting.  They created a program filled with fun and music, in which participants start their own `paradise’.  This reduced trainees’ anxiety, which could have inhibited their learning.  Many adults believe that they learn through experience.  As a result, trainers need to provide opportunities  for trainees to experience something new and discuss it or review training materials based on their experiences.  A common theme in these application is mutuality.  The learner and the trainer are both involved in creating the learning experience and making sure that learning occurs. 

Stimulus Or Message Environment Feedback Reinforcement		Receptions Eyes Ears Nose Skin		Sensory Register		Short-Term Memory		Long-Term Memory
		Effective				Response Generator

The figure 1.1 shows implications of adult learning theory for learning.

Information Processing Theory

Compared to other learning theories, information processing theories give more emphasis to the internal processes that occur when training content is learned and retained.  Figure 1.1 shows a model of information processing.  Information processing theories propose that information or messages taken in by the learner undergo several transformations in the human brain.  Information processing begins when a message or stimuli which could be sound, smell, touch, or pictures from the environment is received by receptors like ears, nose, skin, eyes.  The message is registered in the senses and stored in short-term memory.  The message is then transformed or coded for storage in long-term memory. 

A search process occurs in generated relates to one of the five learning outcomes: verbal information, cognitive skills, motor skills, intellectual skills, or attitudes.  The final link in the model is feedback from the environment.  This feedback provides the learner with an evaluation of the response give.  This information can come from another person or the learner’s own observation of the results of his or her action.  A positive evaluation of the response provides reinforcement that the behaviour is desirable to be stored in long-term memory for use in similar situations.

Thus according to Knowles, our role is to:

·             Model a supportive, cooperative learning climate.

·             Involve our Adult learners in the planning and amount of work in the course.

·             Take the time to find out both the needs and interests of our adult learners.

·             Create of learning objectives based on the needs and interests of our adult student population.

·             Build our courses around a sequenced set of problems for achieving the above objectives.

·             Assess the quality of the learning experience through course evaluations and interviews with the students.

7.0    LEARNING THAT BENEFITED TO ADULT LEARNERS

For all Malaysians mastering in English language will widely open more business opportunity from other countries.  They will have more confident to  trade with us. Because of this, our economy will grow beautifully stable.

Therefore, with the English language as a n second language of the country as well as being spoken by many Malaysians in and outside of their homes, international students will find that Malaysia has an environment conducive for the studying of English.

This will bring good investments for Malaysia not only international students who are studying here but also bring in all the investors who believed and trusted Malaysia, one of English-speaking country.

We have career advancement for workers either in the Malaysia or outside. Malaysians will get more opportunities to work in other countries or to study their abilities and capabilities in new technology.  The skills we learned will be brought back and used for our own good.  This will develop our economy, technology, industry, agricultural and so forth.

We also have two way education benefits, Malaysian students can study abroad or vice-versa.  The foreigners will have more confident to send their children to study in our college or university as the way we conquered the English language, we are as good as others English-speaking country.

Just imagine we would be able to gain more knowledge about others heritage and culture, economic and technology as mostly the books, articles, and journal references are in English. For example, mostly law books are in English therefore, we can solve a lot of cases in court as we have precedent cases to refer.

Malaysia and other countries have more understanding in political issues. The bonding of political issues will be more honest, clear and transparent As per  Merriam and Caffarella point out three factors of society that influence adult learning.  One is demographics – population gets older, adults are better educated and there are more cultural and ethnic diversity.  The second factor is economics and the third is technology.  This is what happened when we resolved the English language issue in Malaysia.

8.0    DATA COLLECTION

The data collection is suitable to collect for case studies English Language for Adults Learning is simple random sampling was used during the questionnaire session to save the time and decreases the logistic problems. We can take from some states in Malaysia such as to do research we can get from Pahang, Perak, Johor, Selangor and Negeri Sembilan.

Cluster sampling was carried out to select the respondents among all the participants who participate in Human Development Program (Alias Baba, 1992).   The sample must be large to get accurate sampling.

9.0    ADULT LITERACY AND THE LADDER OF OPPORTUNITY

Our work as adult literacy educators is central to efforts to rebuild the ladder of opportunity in our country. Adult literacy is deeply embedded in the structure of inequity and opportunity within our society. Our national conversations about equity, economic strength, and stability, as well as opportunity, typically refer to education as a key strategy. But beyond K–12 education, which is without doubt vitally important, adult literacy is also crucial. The following charts illustrate some of the ways education and adult literacy together play a central role.

I choose data analyses from US as Malaysia data difficult to get. These are just to show pattern of adult learning process. Well, these charts are based on analyses of data from the National Adult Literacy Survey (NALS, collected in 1992) and the National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL, collected in 2003), nationally representative surveys and literacy assessments of adults in the United States.  Taken together, they show that the relationships demonstrated in 1992 held steady through the next decade.

The first chart shows the relationship between employment and education and literacy proficiency. The height of each bar is the average number of weeks worked in the previous year by adults with varying amounts of education and literacy.

Chart 1: Average weeks of employment per year by literacy level and educational attainment. Source: Author calculations, National Adult Literacy Survey of 1992.

The chart shows that adults with higher levels of educational attainment and adults with higher levels of literacy proficiency have worked for a greater number of weeks. At any given level of education no high school diploma, a high school diploma, a college degree the more literacy proficiency an individual has, the more weeks of employment.

Indeed, to move toward full employment, adults need both high levels of education and high levels of literacy proficiency. The three-dimensional bars in the figure can be viewed as stepping stones through increasing literacy and education rungs on the ladder of opportunity towards full employment in our society.

In 2003, the picture remained much the same. Chart 2 shows the employment status of adults by their document literacy level, placing the data from 1992 side by side with that of 2003, revealing how powerfully these indicators work together. There is a significant shift in the percentage of adults who are employed as one moves from below basic literacy to proficient levels of literacy. Only 27% and 32% of adults with below-basic literacy were employed full time in 1992 and 2003 respectively, but among those who were proficient, these numbers grew to 68% and 63%.

Chart 2: Percentage of adults in each employment status category, by document literacy

level: 1992–2003.

A similar relationship emerges in the next chart, which displays the percentage of individuals living in or near poverty in 1992 in terms of both literacy proficiency and educational attainment to have good chances of escaping poverty, individuals need high levels of both education and literacy. Educational attainment by itself is not enough.

Chart 3: Percentage of individuals living below poverty line by literacy level and educational attainment. Source: Author calculations, National Adult Literacy Survey of 1992.

At each level of educational attainment, higher levels of literacy are associated with better chances of staying out of poverty. In 2003, the picture remained stubbornly similar. Weekly wages continued to rise with literacy.

Chart 4: Percentage of full-time employed adults in each weekly gross earnings category,

by document literacy level: 2003.

Chart 5: Percentage of individuals who reported voting in the previous five years, by literacy level and educational attainment. Source: Author calculations, National Adult Literacy Survey of 1992.

In 2003, similar patterns were demonstrated. Adults with higher levels of literacy were more likely to vote and volunteer. Once again, the steps up the ladder of opportunity and engagement in our society pass through increasing levels of both literacy and education.

Chart 6: Percentage of adult citizens of voting age who voted in the 2000 election, by prose and document literacy level: 2003.

Chart 7: Percentage of adults who volunteered during the past year, by prose and document literacy level: 2003

This does not mean, of course, that all of these complex problems will miraculously disappear if only we can raise the literacy levels of our adult population. It does reflect, however, how deeply literacy is embedded in a range of issues in our society. Solutions to these problems will very likely involve developing new and more effective ways to increase adult literacy levels over time.

9.0       CONCLUSION

Adult education is an education which consist those who are mature from their age, emotion, thinking and career (Nor Azizah, 1997).  On the other hand, Merriam et al. (1999) defined that adult education as a lifelong learning process which is not fastening by age, space and condition. According to Kim and Creighton (2000), adult education refers to different types of education activities which carried out by different department or unit to increase everyone knowledge in a society after their formal education. Mazanah & Associates (2001) defined that adult education refers to the learning opportunities that are undertaken by adults outside the formal schooling system. Haslinda (2000), adult education also happened during our daily life activities such as reading newspaper, watching television, communication and having sports.

On the other hand, there are no any research that evaluate the similar case, therefore researcher can only choose the model, theory, construct and research instrument based on the principle. A research can be more strong and extensive if the researcher able to work on the exploration with confidence. It is suggested that further research can focus on andragogy field because there still have other aspects that we should take into consideration. For example, effectiveness and acceptable methods. Some of the local researchers, Razali (1987) and Nor Azizah Mohd. Salleh (1997) emphasize on andragogy field. However, in Western country, Knowles (1972, 1984 and 1989), Hartree (1984), Krajne (1989) and Pratt (1993) are widely doing on this kind of research. Andragogy teaching theories which used in Western country should consist into the local research where the centering teaching methods, practicum and interactive should be tested and look appropriately to our country.

Mastering in English as international language bring us so many benefits in economic, education, industry, culture, even in religion. We can translate Al-Quran in English therefore, other country can understand, read, study and learn from it.  In the work place, English should be widely use and can be a career advancement at all level. Therefore, workers must be well versed in English so that will make it easier for them to be promoted.

We also can do a lot of research in the name of science. We can cure new diseases. Some of the words in science even cannot be translated in other language. Learning English will upgrade Malaysians from low level  to the highest level in all aspects of education. That is why English language is very important.  Through learning and mastering English we can cultivate our intellects.  In addition, we would be able to improve a person and social as well.  Organisations will be more effectiveness. 

English language is for adult to learn a lot of things. This learning process for adult or person is lifetime. This will educate a person to be more professional in working environment and social transformation. Quality of healthiness will be improved.  Just one issue – English language can relate a lot of situation, upgrade a lot of aspects in life not only personal needs that become community impacts.

There is a different in adult education from third world countries to western countries.  Third world countries or developing countries like Malaysia, the impact of adult education will be affected to huge things – person: self-esteem, company/industry: well-developed, country: stable economy and community-professionalism.  Malaysia is a developing country but when comes to adult education we follow the same like the third world countries.

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